single-use-seals.md

Single-use Seals and Proof of Publication

Single-use Seals are cryptographic primitives proposed by Peter Todd in ~2016. They are a type of cryptographic commitment that resembles a physical seal applied to a container. Such primitives let a party prove to another that a sequence of events took place, which reduces the risk that the sequence could be altered once established.

This property renders such commitment schemes a more sophisticated form of both simple commitments (i.e. digest/hash) and timestamping.

To be more precise, a simple hash proves that a party possesses certain data without revealing it, but it doesn't prove when the data was created. Meanwhile, timestamping establishes that something existed before a certain date, but it doesn't prevent the same party from creating alternative commitments. Single-use Seals combine the properties of both these primitives.

A physical single-use seal: once closed, its protected content cannot be altered

To work properly, single-use seals require a proof-of-publication medium: a mechanism based on global consensus (such as blockchains) that is not necessarily decentralized, but protects against forgery or replication once the commitment is issued and made public. A newspaper is a familiar example of this concept.

The proof-of-publication medium will be used:

• To prove that every member p in an audience P has received a certain message m.
• To prove that the message m has not been revealed.
• To prove that some member q is in the audience P.

Considering these properties, we can write a more formal definition:

A single-use seal is a formal promise to commit once (and only once) to a yet-unknown message in the future, such that the fact of commitment is demonstrably known to all members of a certain audience.

Taking this definition and the general properties above into account, we can compare the properties of single-use seals with those of various cryptographic primitives:

Property	Simple Commitment	Timestamp	Single-use Seals
Never reveal the message when the commitment is published	Yes	Yes	Yes
Prove message existence before a certain date	Not Possible	Possible	Possible
Prove no alternative commitment can exist	Not Possible	Not Possible	Possible

How can we construct a single-use seal and which operations are involved? In general, this process includes three steps:

• Seal Definition.
• Seal Closing.
• Seal Verification.

For the following examples, we will use the well-known computer science characters, Alice and Bob.

Seal Definition

Alice promises Bob (either in private or in public) to create some message (technically a hash of some data):

• At a well-defined point in time and space.
• Using an agreed publication medium.

Seal Closing

When Alice publishes the message following all the rules stated in the seal definition, she also produces a witness, which proves that the seal has indeed been closed.

By closing a single-use seal containing a message, a user renders such a message unalterable. In its digital form, inscribed in Layer 1, the seal cannot be opened anymore.

Seal Verification

Once the seal is closed, it cannot be opened or closed again, precisely because it's single-use. The only thing Bob can do is check whether the seal has actually been closed over the message commitment: to do it, he will use the seal, the witness, and the message (which is a commitment to some data) as inputs.

In Computer Science terms, the whole procedure can be summed up as follows:

seal <- Define()                         # Done by Alice, accepted by Bob.

witness <- Close(seal, message)          # Close a seal over a message, done by Alice.

bool <- Verify(seal, witness, message)   # Verify that the seal was closed, done by Bob.

Thanks to the combination of single-use seals and client-side validation, a distributed system does not need global consensus (that is, a blockchain) in order to reliably store all the data that matters to some counterparties. A distributed system will use global consensus only to commit that data. This design provides a high level of scalability and privacy. However, it is not enough to make the system work. Because the definition of a single-use seal occurs on the client side and does not need to be recorded on the global consensus medium, a party cannot prove that the seal's definition ever took place even if that party is a member of the audience observing the publication medium.

We therefore need a "chain" of single-use seals, where the closure of the previous seal incorporates the definition of the subsequent seal. RGB Protocol on Bitcoin implements such a mechanism as follows:

• Messages represent the commitment to client-side validated data.
• Seal definitions are bitcoin UTXOs.
• The commitment is a hash embedded in a Bitcoin transaction.
• The seal closure is the action of spending its UTXO
• This resulting chain of connected transactions represents the Proof-of-Publication.

In the next chapters, we will explore in detail how RGB Protocol implements the concept of single-use seals by storing the commitments of its operations in the Bitcoin blockchain.

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