Status: Working draft. Vocabulary in
LEXICON.md. Design rationale inDESIGN.md. This file covers phonology, morphology, syntax, and the closed-class particle inventory.Changes from v0.4:
- zan (indeterminate) expanded to a full class-specific paradigm; h- series added for class-specified unknowns; zan retained for fully unknown-class causer
- Intransitive verb alternation (-in / -an pairs) made an explicit principle
- Topic construction added: particle tev
- Optional post-nominal case markers sav (subject) and dob (direct object) added for SOV disambiguation
- bel (from/source) disentangled from temporal "before"; new temporal prepositions bef (before) and naf (after)
- Resumptive pronouns required in all formal relative clauses (including intransitive); informal gap allowed for intransitives only
- Predicate adjective rule strengthened
Simavokab — sim (precise/clear) + -a- (linker) + vok (voice/language)
- -ab (abstract suffix) = "language of precision."
CVC check: S-i-m-a-v-o-k-a-b = C-V-C-V-C-V-C-V-C ✓
| Symbol | IPA | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| b | /b/ | |
| c | /tʃ/ | as in church |
| d | /d/ | |
| f | /f/ | |
| g | /g/ | always hard, as in get |
| h | /h/ | |
| j | /ʒ/ | as in measure |
| k | /k/ | |
| l | /l/ | |
| m | /m/ | |
| n | /n/ | |
| p | /p/ | |
| r | /r/ | any non-lateral rhotic; tapping/trilling optional |
| s | /s/ | |
| t | /t/ | |
| v | /v/ | |
| x | /ʃ/ | as in shoe |
| z | /z/ | |
| ' | /ʔ/ | glottal stop; interjections only (§1.5) |
r may be realised as tap [ɾ], trill [r], or approximant [ɹ] — no meaning distinction between realisations.
a e i o u — as in Italian; full, consistent, never reduced. No diphthongs.
Every content or function word follows CVC(VC)*: begins with a consonant, alternates consonant and vowel, ends with a consonant.
The word-boundary rule (absolute): Any CC sequence with no intervening vowel is a word boundary. Within a single word, every pair of consonants is separated by a vowel. No exceptions for content and function words.
perasun magal → peras·un | mag·al (n·m = word break)
domaperasup → one word; no internal CC
Prefixes (pi-, su-) are CV- forms; they attach without creating CC. Linker in compounds: -a- (full /a/) joins roots: dom-a-peras-up.
Stress falls on the first vowel of the lexical root. Prefixes, infixes, and suffixes are all unstressed.
| Form | Root | Pronunciation |
|---|---|---|
| bukek | buk | BUkek |
| sapal | sap | SApal |
| perasun | peras | PErasun |
| pimagal | mag | piMAgal |
| bevirun | bev | BEvirun |
Compounds: primary stress on first root, secondary on subsequent roots: domaperasup → DOma·pe·ra·sup. Monosyllabic particles stress their only syllable automatically.
Closed class, exempt from the CVC rule:
| Form | IPA | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| 'o | /ʔo/ | oh! (surprise, realization) |
| 'e | /ʔe/ | hey! (getting attention) |
| 'i | /ʔi/ | yes!/yay! (affirmation, joy) |
| 'a | /ʔa/ | ah! (understanding, satisfaction) |
| hah | /hah/ | hah! (laughter) — CVC ✓ |
| bas | /bas/ | stop!/enough! — CVC ✓ |
| vas | /vas/ | well done!/bravo! — CVC ✓ |
| zas | /zas/ | ugh!/alas! — CVC ✓ |
- Starts with a consonant ✓
- Ends with a consonant ✓
- No CC sequence within the word ✓
- All phonemes in the inventory ✓
Cumulative corrections (all versions):
| Bad form | Problem | Replacement |
|---|---|---|
| pardin | rd = CC inside word | patin |
| simbin | mb = CC inside word | simin |
| kontin | nt = CC inside word | kotin |
| simtan | mt = CC inside word | sinan |
| trubin | tr = CC at word start | tubin |
| detrin | tr = CC inside word | derin |
| intenin | starts with vowel + nt | temin |
| uzon | starts with vowel | vazon |
| mutun | irregular deletion of n | munatun |
Every noun carries a mandatory class suffix:
entity
├── concrete
│ ├── living
│ │ ├── animate / sentient → -em
│ │ │ └── sapient → -un
│ │ └── (living, non-animate) → -iv
│ ├── natural (non-living, non-made) → -ar
│ └── artificial / constructed → -ek
├── abstract → -ab
├── group / collection → -up
└── process / gerund → -ag
| Class | Suffix | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Sapient | -un | perasun "person" |
| Animate | -em | kanem "dog" |
| Living | -iv | dariv "tree" |
| Natural | -ar | rokar "rock" |
| Artificial | -ek | bukek "book" |
| Abstract | -ab | lovab "love" |
| Group | -up | timup "team" |
| Gerund | -ag | ronag "running" |
Root for "group in general": gor → gorup.
Hard cases: see DESIGN.md for the full ontological discussion including polysemous nouns (e.g., "law" as artifact lawek vs. "law" as abstract proposition lawab).
| Role | Infix | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| Agent | -ir- | the one who performs the action |
| Patient | -ul- | the one/thing undergoing the action |
bev → bevirun "drinker (sapient)" / bevulek "beverage (artifact)"
lov → lovirun "lover (sapient)" / lovulun "beloved (sapient)"
ROOT + (ROLE) + CLASS + (PLURAL) + (OWNERSHIP)
Plural (-es): used for bare plurals without a quantifier. Any quantifier (jat, sol, mul, dol, nol, numbers) suppresses -es:
perasunes "people" (bare plural)
sol perasun "some people" (quantifier present → no -es)
Ownership (-os): marks alienable ownership only. All other associative relations use prepositions (§4.5).
| Category | Form | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Adjective | ROOT + -al | magal "big" |
| Adverb | ROOT + -il | magil "greatly" |
| Comp. adj | pi- + ROOT + -al | pimagal "bigger" |
| Sup. adj | su- + ROOT + -al | sumagal "biggest" |
Standard of comparison: tam ("than"):
tal pasem pimagal tam tal kanem "the bird bigger than the dog"
Degree modifiers (precede the adjective or adverb they modify): vel (very), pok (somewhat), tes (barely), nep (almost), top (too much).
Three-level post-nominal hierarchy (most inherent nearest the noun):
NOUN → CLASSIFICATORY → DESCRIPTIVE → EVALUATIVE
| Level | Encodes |
|---|---|
| Classificatory | type, purpose, material, origin |
| Descriptive | observable properties: size, shape, color |
| Evaluative | subjective judgment |
Within a level, order is free. Example:
tal kursekel tobonal situal magal bonal
"the beautiful big wooden rocking chair"
FREQUENCY → TIME/PLACE adjuncts → MANNER → [particle cluster] → VERB
Time and place adjuncts may appear sentence-initially for emphasis.
English's single possessive encodes many distinct relations. Simavokab uses explicit constructions for each:
| Relation | Construction | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Alienable ownership | OWNER*-os* + THING | perasunos karak "person's car" |
| Part-whole / attribute | THING pes WHOLE | menak pes karak "engine of the car" |
| Inalienable (body part) | PART pes PERSON | memar pes mun "my arm" |
| Kinship / social relation | ROLE rel PERSON | buvun rel mun "my father" |
| Origin / authorship | THING bel SOURCE | vokab bel Bobanom "Bob's words" |
| Beneficiary | THING por RECIPIENT | bukek por ninun "book for the child" |
| Agent of event | GERUND pab AGENT | movanag pab Jonanom "John's arrival" |
| Patient of event | GERUND pes PATIENT | derinag pes sitak "city's destruction" |
| Temporal association | THING den TIME | novab den nalab "today's news" |
| Location / origin | THING bel PLACE | bovab bel Ital "food from Italy" |
| Experiencer | STATE pes EXPERIENCER | fimab pes mun "my fear" |
Note: bel covers both geographic source and origin/authorship. A dedicated authorship particle may be introduced in a later version if overloading becomes a problem.
| Valency | Suffix | Arguments | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| Intransitive | -an | S | vivan "live", ronan "run" |
| Transitive | -in | S, O | vizin "see", sapin "know" |
| Ditransitive | -on | S, O, IO | donon "give (something to someone)" |
Most action verbs have both a transitive (-in) and an intransitive (-an) form. The intransitive describes the event as it affects the patient, without asserting or implying any agent:
| Transitive (-in) | Intransitive (-an) |
|---|---|
| derin "destroy sth" | deran "become destroyed" |
| brokin "break sth" | brokan "break / become broken" |
| klosin "close sth" | klosan "become closed" |
| movin "move sth" | movan "move oneself" ← existing |
This is the primary tool for expressing an event without specifying an agent. It replaces the core use case of the passive in many contexts:
tal vasek pas brokan den tal zaran.
the vase-ART PST broke-INTR in the earthquake-NAT.
"The vase broke in the earthquake." (no agent implied)
tal sitak pas deran pab tal surab.
the city-NAT PST was-destroyed-INTR by the storm-NAT.
"The city was destroyed by the storm." (natural instrument, no sapient agent)
pab (by/via) marks the instrument or natural cause.
No general "to be":
| Verb | Val. | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| bidin | trans | be identical to |
| tipin | trans | be a type / instance of |
| pirin | trans | have property / quality |
| zivan | intr | exist |
| patin | trans | be part of |
| mibin | trans | be a member of |
Formal (logical precision): pirin + quality noun (ROOT + -ab):
tal dariv pirin magalab. "The tree has the property of bigness."
Informal (zero copula): An adjective that ends the clause (no verb follows in that clause) is a predicative construction:
tal dariv magal. "The tree is big." (predicative — clause-final)
tal dariv magal ronan. "The big tree runs." (attributive — verb follows)
The morphological suffix of the verb (-an/-in/-on) makes the verb always identifiable; if a verb is present in the clause, any adjective preceding it is attributive. If no verb is present, the final adjective is predicative.
For coordination of two predicates, use kas:
tal dariv magal kas ronan. "The tree is big and runs."
Passive morphology is not used. Three explicit constructions replace its functions:
| Passive function | Simavokab replacement |
|---|---|
| Agency suppression | Indeterminate pronouns (§7.3) |
| Unknown / natural causation | Intransitive alternation (§5.2) |
| Patient focus / topic fronting | Topic construction with tev (§10.6) |
| Result state | Zero-copula adjective predication (§5.4) |
All particles are CVC. They form a closed class. Every particle in any example is defined here.
| Word | Meaning |
|---|---|
| nol | no / none |
| sol | some (indefinite small quantity) |
| mul | many (indefinite large quantity) |
| dol | all / every |
Any quantifier (including number words, §11) suppresses -es on the noun.
| Particle | Meaning |
|---|---|
| pas | past |
| nun | present (default; often omitted) |
| fus | future |
| Particle | Meaning |
|---|---|
| zip | near / just / soon |
| zap | moderate temporal distance |
| zup | remote / long ago / far |
| Particle | Meaning | Note |
|---|---|---|
| dur | progressive / ongoing | from Latin durare |
| pef | perfective / completed | from Latin perfectum |
| zab | habitual / general truth | |
| biv | inceptive / just beginning | from English begin |
| Particle | Meaning |
|---|---|
| pos | can / possible (epistemic) |
| deb | must / obligated (deontic) |
| vol | want / desire |
| sel | should / advisable |
| nul | not (verbal negation) |
MODAL → TENSE → DISTANCE → ASPECT → VERB
| Example | Reading |
|---|---|
| pas dur ronan | was running |
| deb fus vokin | will have to say |
| nul pas zab vokin | did not habitually say |
| fus biv ronan | will begin running |
| Particle | Meaning |
|---|---|
| sif | if (opens conditional clause) |
| dan | then / therefore (opens consequent) |
| nik | not (sentential negation) |
| lev | end-of-embedded-clause marker |
| tev | topic marker (§10.6) |
Note: "for" (= because) was removed in v0.4 as redundant with sib and dan.
nul negates the verb phrase; nik negates the whole proposition.
kas (and), zor (or), bet (but), sib (because).
tal (the), hal (a/an), nal (this), zal (that), kel (which/what).
| Particle | Meaning |
|---|---|
| pes | of (part-whole, attribute, constitutive) |
| rel | in-relation-to (kinship / social) |
| par | to / toward; indirect object marker |
| den | in / at / within (location) |
| bel | from / out of (source, origin) — spatial and causal origin only |
| bef | before (temporal) — NEW |
| naf | after (temporal) — NEW |
| zem | with / accompanied by (comitative) |
| nob | without |
| por | for (beneficiary / intended-for) |
| pab | by / via (agent or instrument) |
| tam | than (comparison standard) |
| sub | under / below |
| sup | over / above |
| sob | about / concerning (propositional content) |
Note on bef and naf: Previous versions incorrectly used bel (source) and par (to/IO) as temporal prepositions. bef and naf are the correct temporal prepositions:
mun pas vokin bef tal ronag. "I spoke before the running."
xun fus movan naf tal donag. "She will move after the giving."
Case markers follow the noun phrase they mark, making them post-nominal. They are optional in simple sentences where S-O-V order is unambiguous, but recommended (and required in formal register) for complex SOV sentences.
| Marker | Meaning | Etymology |
|---|---|---|
| sav | subject marker | from sub-agens (Latin) |
| dob | direct object marker | from dativus objectum |
The indirect object is already marked by par (preposition, pre-nominal).
Usage:
Simple SOV (order alone suffices):
perasun kanem vizin.
"The person sees the dog."
Complex SOV (case markers recommended):
tal perasun sapal tazun xun vel sapin lev sav tal kanem magal dob vizin.
the wise person who knows a lot SUBJ the big dog OBJ sees.
"The wise person who knows a lot sees the big dog."
Case markers may also be used in SVO and VSO for emphatic role marking, but are rarely needed in those registers since the verb's position already disambiguates.
All begin with k- (Esperanto ki- pattern): kev (yes/no), kel (what/which), kim (who), kaz (when), kos (where), kiv (why), kom (how).
tid (witnessed), tob (heard/told), ged (inferred), set (generally accepted).
vel (very), pok (somewhat), tes (barely), nep (almost), top (too much).
bok (open quotation), kob (close quotation). Note: kob ≠ kos (where).
First person:
| Form | Gloss |
|---|---|
| mun | I (1st singular, sapient) |
| munes | we — exclusive (does NOT include the addressee) |
| munatun | we — inclusive (ALWAYS includes the addressee) |
munatun = mun + -a- + tun: m-u-n-a-t-u-n = CVCVCVC ✓ (standard compound rule; no consonant is deleted).
Second person: tun (sg), tunes (pl). Used for any addressee regardless of class — the entity's class is visible from its noun suffix elsewhere.
Third person — sapient: xun (sg), xunes (pl). Gender-neutral.
Third person — non-sapient (all begin r-):
| Form | Class | Form | Class |
|---|---|---|---|
| rem | Animate | rek | Artificial |
| remes | Animate pl | rekes | Artif. pl |
| riv | Living | rab | Abstract |
| rives | Living pl | rabes | Abstr. pl |
| rar | Natural | rup | Group |
| rares | Natural pl | rupes | Group pl |
zib (self/reflexive), nav (each other/reciprocal).
Used when the identity of the agent or causer is unknown. Two series:
General indeterminate — zan (fully unknown class): Used when neither the identity nor the class of the agent/causer is known:
zan pas derin tal bukek. "Something/someone destroyed the book." (class unknown)
Class-specific indeterminates — h- series: Used when the class of the unknown agent/causer is known. These follow the same class-suffix pattern as the 3rd-person pronouns:
| Form | Class | Meaning / typical use |
|---|---|---|
| hun | Sapient | "someone" (unknown sapient) |
| hem | Animate | "some animal" (unknown animate) |
| hiv | Living | "some organism" (unknown living thing) |
| har | Natural | "some natural force" (storm, quake, …) |
| hek | Artificial | "some system/artifact" (unknown machine/program) |
| hab | Abstract | "some principle/rule" (abstract cause) |
| hup | Group | "some group" (unknown collective) |
hun pas makin tal berabes. "Some person made mistakes."
har pas derin tal sitak. "Some natural force destroyed the city."
hek pas nokin tal ronag. "Some artifact/system prevented the running."
Choosing between zan and h- forms:
| Situation | Form |
|---|---|
| Agent exists but class is truly unknown | zan |
| Agent class known, identity unknown | appropriate h- form |
| Event occurred with no agent implied | intransitive -an (§5.2) |
| Focus on resulting state (not on event) | zero-copula adj (§5.4) |
- Speaker among the referents: munes for subsequent pronoun reference.
- Speaker not involved: use pronoun of the highest shared supertype.
- Ambiguous: repeat the noun or use nal/zal.
taz- + class suffix of the antecedent:
| Class | Marker | Class | Marker |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sapient | tazun | Artificial | tazek |
| Animate | tazem | Abstract | tazab |
| Living | taziv | Group | tazup |
| Natural | tazar | Gerund | tazag |
Simavokab uses resumptive pronouns to make the antecedent's role inside the relative clause explicit. The 3rd-person pronoun matching the antecedent's class occupies the exact syntactic position the antecedent fills.
Word order inside the clause is SVO (default for clarity and consistency).
Requirement:
- Formal / written register: resumptive pronoun always required, including for intransitive verbs.
- Informal / spoken: resumptive may be omitted for intransitive verbs only (where the antecedent can only be subject — no ambiguity).
Template:
[ANTECEDENT NP] [taz-CLASS] [CLAUSE, SVO, with resumptive pronoun] lev
Transitive — object relativization ("the dog that I saw"):
tal kanem tazem mun vizin rem lev
the dog-ANIM REL-ANIM I see-TRANS it-ANIM(RESUM) CE
Transitive — subject relativization ("the dog that saw me"):
tal kanem tazem rem vizin mun lev
the dog-ANIM REL-ANIM it-ANIM(RESUM) see-TRANS I CE
Intransitive ("the dog that runs"):
tal kanem tazem rem ronan lev (formal — resumptive required)
tal kanem tazem ronan lev (informal — gap permitted)
Ditransitive ("the child to whom I gave the book"):
tal ninun tazun mun donon tal bukek par xun lev
the child-SAP REL-SAP I give-DITR the book-ART to he-SAP(RESUM) CE
Required when the relative clause is embedded in a complex sentence. May be omitted in short, unambiguous standalone relative clauses in speech.
tal kanem tazem rem ronan lev tazem rem vizin mun lev
"the dog that was running and that saw me"
Proper nouns receive -anom after phonological adaptation. Guidelines (not rigid algorithm); personal preference in adaptation is permitted if phonotactics are satisfied.
| Original | Adapted | Final form |
|---|---|---|
| Mary | Marir | Mariranom |
| John | Jon | Jonanom |
| Paris | Paris | Parisanom |
| Frank | Faran | Farananom |
Three word orders, distinguished by verb position (identifiable via valency suffix):
| Verb position | Order | Register |
|---|---|---|
| Final | SOV | formal, written |
| Medial | SVO | everyday speech |
| Initial | VSO | commands |
The parser locates the verb by its -an/-in/-on suffix, reads its position, and assigns S/O roles accordingly. kev (yes/no marker) and post-nominal case markers (sav, dob) are excluded from this position calculation.
Transitive (SOV): S precedes O precedes V. If both NPs are of the same class or ambiguity arises, add case markers:
perasun kanem vizin. (order alone: person = S, dog = O)
perasun sav kanem dob vizin. (explicit: same meaning, unambiguous)
kanem sav perasun dob vizin. (dog = S, person = O — reversed with markers)
Ditransitive (SOV): S IO O V (indirect object precedes direct object):
mun ninun bukek donon. S IO O V
Ditransitive (SVO): S V O par IO:
mun donon bukek par ninun. S V O par IO
No tense particle. Subject is usually tun (you) and may be omitted when clear:
donon tun tal bukekes par tal ninun! "Give the books to the child!"
donon tal bukekes par tal ninun! (subject omitted — implicit *tun*)
Post-nominal adjectives (§4.4). Adverbs precede the particle cluster (§4.5). Degree modifiers precede their target.
mun nul vizin tun. "I do not see you." (verbal negation)
nik mun vizin tun. "It is not the case that I see you." (sentential)
The particle tev marks a topicalized noun phrase, placed before the main clause. The topic's role in the clause is filled by the appropriate 3rd-person pronoun (resumptive strategy):
[TOPIC NP] tev, [MAIN CLAUSE with resumptive]
This foregrounds the patient or any other argument without passive morphology:
tal bukek tev, Jonanom pas makin rek.
the book-ART TOP, John-PROP past make-TRANS it-ART.
"As for the book, John made it." (focus on the book)
Jonanom pas makin tal bukek.
"John made the book." (focus on John's action)
The topic construction separates discourse-focus from syntactic role — it is the primary replacement for the discourse-focusing function of passive voice.
sif [condition] dan [consequent]
sif tun sapin tal rabin, dan mun vokin tun.
"If you know the truth, then I will speak to you."
kev is always sentence-final, regardless of word order, excluded from parsing calculation:
SVO: tun vizin tal kanem kev? "Do you see the dog?"
SOV: tun tal kanem vizin kev? (formal)
Questioned element replaced by interrogative in its normal position:
kim pas vizin tal kanem? "Who saw the dog?"
tun vizin kel? "What do you see?"
kaz tun ronan? "When do you run?"
kos tal kanem zivan? "Where does the dog live?"
kiv tun pas movan? "Why did you move?"
kom tun pas makin nal masek? "How did you make this machine?"
| Value | Root | Value | Root | Source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | jat | 7 | sem | Russian семь |
| 2 | tus | 8 | nok | |
| 3 | san | 9 | nov | Latin novem |
| 4 | kar | 10 | dek | Greek deka |
| 5 | kin | 100 | cen | Latin centum |
| 6 | luk | 1000 | mil | Latin mille |
luk (6) from Cantonese 六 (Jyutping luk6). Composition: multiplicative- additive, largest first: san cen tus dek jat = 321.
Number nouns: ROOT + -ab → jatab "the number one." Ordinals: ROOT + -al → jatal "first", tusal "second."
All forms pass the CVC(VC)* check.
tipin (be a type of), bidin (be identical to), pirin (have property), zivan (exist), patin (be part of), mibin (be a member of), simin (be similar to).
kazon (cause), gadin (enable), nokin (prevent), rekin (require), vazon (use X for Y).
patin (be part of), kotin (contain), lokan (be located).
tibin (occur before), tapin (occur after), durin (occur during), sinan (be simultaneous).
sapin (know), tubin (believe), vizin (see/perceive), vokan (speak intrans.), vokin (say trans.), temin (intend).
| Transitive (-in) | Intransitive (-an) | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| derin | deran | destroy / be destroyed |
| movin | movan | move sth / move self |
| makin | makan | make / come to be made |
| lokin | — | find / seek |
| — | ronan | run (intr. only) |
| — | vivan | live (intr. only) |
| lubin | — | like / love |
| donon (ditr.) | — | give |
| Category | Template |
|---|---|
| Noun | ROOT + (ROLE) + CLASS + (-es)? + (-os)? |
| Verb | ROOT + VALENCY (-an / -in / -on) |
| Adjective | ROOT + -al; pi- … -al; su- … -al |
| Adverb | ROOT + -il; pi- … -il; su- … -il |
| Particle chain | MODAL + TENSE + DISTANCE + ASPECT + VERB |
| Compound noun | ROOT + -a- + ROOT + … + CLASS |
| Number noun | NUMBER-ROOT + -ab |
| Ordinal adj | NUMBER-ROOT + -al |
| Proper noun | ADAPTED-ROOT + -anom |
CVC: 1,445 forms. CVCVC: 123,505 forms. Check all new roots against: (1) the particle inventory (§6), (2) the pronoun paradigm (§7), (3) the existing verb/noun inventory. Etymology: extract consonant skeleton of source word, choose vowels, verify no collision.
Abbreviations: SAP Sapient · ANIM Animate · LIV Living · NAT Natural · ART Artificial · ABST Abstract · GRP Group · GER Gerund · INTR Intransitive · TRANS Transitive · DITR Ditransitive · PL Plural · OWN Ownership suffix · AGT Agent-role · PAT Patient-role · PST Past · FUT Future · PRG Progressive · PFV Perfective · HAB Habitual · INCEP Inceptive · CMP Comparative · SUP Superlative · RESUM Resumptive pronoun · CE Clause-End · DEF Definite · INDEF Indefinite · TOP Topic · SUBJ Subject marker · OBJ Object marker · INDET Indeterminate agent
SOV: Perasunes sapal ninun bukekes pas donon.
SVO: Perasunes sapal pas donon bukekes par ninun.
VSO (command, no tense, subject omitted): Donon tal bukekes par tal ninun!
"the dog that I saw":
tal kanem tazem mun vizin rem lev
"the dog that saw me":
tal kanem tazem rem vizin mun lev
"the dog that runs" (formal):
tal kanem tazem rem ronan lev
"the dog that runs" (informal, intransitive gap allowed):
tal kanem tazem ronan lev
Agency suppression (unknown sapient):
hun pas makin tal berabes.
INDET-SAP PST make-TRANS DEF mistake-ABST-PL
"Some person made mistakes."
Natural cause, no sapient agent:
tal vasek pas brokan den tal kanan.
the vase-ART PST broke-INTR in the earthquake-NAT
"The vase broke in the earthquake."
Instrument cause (natural):
tal sitak pas deran pab tal surab.
the city-NAT PST was-destroyed-INTR by the storm-NAT
"The city was destroyed by the storm."
Result state (no event implied):
tal vasek brokal.
the vase-ART broken-ADJ
"The vase is broken."
Topic fronting (replaces discourse passive):
tal bukek tev, Jonanom pas makin rek.
the book-ART TOP, John-PROP past make-TRANS it-ART
"As for the book, John made it."
Simple (order alone):
perasun kanem vizin. "The person sees the dog."
With case markers (unambiguous regardless of NP order):
perasun sav kanem dob vizin. same meaning, explicit
Complex SOV (markers required in formal register):
tal perasun sapal tazun xun vel sapin lev sav
the wise person who knows a lot SUBJ
tal kanem magal dob vizin.
the big dog OBJ sees.
"The wise person who knows a lot sees the big dog."
mun pas vokin bef tal ronag. "I spoke before the running."
xun fus movan naf tal donag. "She will move after the giving."
"If Mary knows that John made a machine, she must speak clearly to the team."
Sif Mariranom sapin tazab Jonanom pas makin hal masek lev,
if Mary-PROP know-TRANS REL-ABST John-PROP PST make-TRANS INDEF machine-ART CE
dan xun deb vokin simil par tal timup.
then she-SAP must speak-TRANS clearly-ADV to DEF team-GRP
zan pas derin tal bukek. "Something/someone (class unknown) destroyed the book."
hun pas derin tal bukek. "Some person destroyed the book."
har pas derin tal bukek. "Some natural force destroyed the book."
hek pas derin tal bukek. "Some system/artifact destroyed the book."
tal bukek pas deran. "The book was destroyed." (no causer implied)
tal bukek derinal. "The book is destroyed." (result state)
| # | Issue | Status |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Passive voice | Resolved: not permitted; four explicit replacements (§5.5). |
| 2 | Reference-time tense | Partially addressed (bef/naf §6.10; tibin/tapin §12); narrative tense deferred. |
| 3 | Scalar degree | Resolved: vel, pok, tes, nep, top (§4.3, §6.14). |
| 4 | Mixed-class coordination | Resolved (§7.4). |
| 5 | Measure words | Resolved: optional measure nouns only. |
| 6 | Quotation markers | Resolved: bok / kob (§6.15). |
| 7 | Tense in narrative / reported speech | Open. |
| 8 | Full comparative clause syntax | Open: tam covers simple cases. |
| 9 | Formal sentence-final punctuation | Open: period in writing; no dedicated particle. |
| 10 | bel overloading (source vs. authorship) | Flagged (§4.6); deferred. |
| 11 | Result-state / stative aspect | Partially addressed via zero-copula adjective; dedicated resultative marker deferred. |
| 12 | Vocabulary for semantic domains | In progress: see LEXICON.md. |